Ethics in Journalism

Ever wanted to know more about journalistic ethics? Got an interest in Enligtenment philosophy?
Well today is your lucky day! (If not I'd avoid reading this essay)

The Media, Entertainment & Arts Alliance (MEAA) is an organisation for people who work in information and entertainment industries. MEAA members are bound by its code of ethics.  Adapted from the Australian Journalists Association’s code, it aims to ensure correct and ethical practice by its members. The original version of the code was developed in 1944, and has since been used as the basis of many other codes of ethics, both in industries and in private corporations. Either consciously or unconsciously, when the code was drafted it drew on ideas from three philosophical theories: Social Contract Theory, Utilitarianism and Virtue Theory. The links between these theories and the MEAA code of ethics are clear in specific clauses of the code.

Clause 1 of the MEAA code of ethics is about truth telling. In this sense it can be linked with Clause 9, which also encourages truth telling but through picture and sound. There are clear links between these clauses and the three theories. Truth telling is a cornerstone of an effectively functioning society (Muller 2012a), and Social Contract theory requires people to act in a manner that makes society work. Aristotle, a leader in the development of the Virtue Theory, discussed truthfulness as a key virtue in Nicomachean Ethics (Rachels & Rachels 2010, p.158). There is also a link with the Utilitarianism, as truth telling in general adds to human happiness. Furthermore, then the Clause 1 stipulates that a “fair opportunity for reply” must be given, something echoed in Utilitarian theory, which tells us that all people are equal.

Clause 2 of the code relates to respecting human dignity and equality. It requires no placement of “unnecessary emphasis on personal characteristics.” Utilitarianism, by definition, requires us to treat all people of equal value, and place the interest of the individual in harmony with the interest of the whole (Mill 1879, p.32). Also, the Social Contract theory is based around the idea that if nature has made all people equal, then that equality must be acknowledged (Hobbes & Gaskin 1996, p. 257).  Virtue theory helps us to understand the mention of “unnecessary emphasis” in the clause, which could otherwise be seen as a way to get around the clause. It allows a test of fairness and reason, which permits mention of relevant characteristics (Muller 2012b).

The third clause of the code deals with transparency and promise keeping, requiring journalists to acknowledge and protect sources. This kind of reciprocal arrangement is what the Social Contract theory is grounded in (Rachels & Rachels, 2010, p. 96), and by definition, a contract is where two parties agree to terms on the understanding that both sides follow through on those terms. Furthermore, whether an action is virtuous can be answered by the question ‘what is the right thing to do?’, and upholding promises and protecting those in vulnerable positions is a virtuous act.

Clause 4 and Clause 6 both consider impartiality and independence, telling us not to allow other interests or financial consideration to affect our work. This is exactly in line with Utilitarian thinking, as utility requires us to be as strictly impartial as a disinterested and benevolent spectator (Mill 1879, p.31-32). In addition, to be motivated by greed of selfishness would be the opposite of the characteristics advocated by Virtue theory, which promotes traits which make someone a good person (Rachels & Rachels 2010, p.158).

Similarly to Clauses 4 and 6, Clauses 5 and 7 of the code relates to impartiality and also conflict of interest. Again the link with Utilitarian theory is apparent.  There is also a connection with Social Contract theory, which requires us not to use power to undermine or damage others (Muller 2012a). Furthermore, in developing the Social Contract, philosophers Thomas Hobbes and John Locke explored the idea of civic power, where the people gain some form of sovereignty, although this could only be provided by full access to information, something which both Social Contract theory and these clauses request.

The eighth clause demands fairness and honesty in the media. Social Contract theory is relevant here, as it requires equal treatment of people and to not use your power to exploit or damage people, as that would undermine the functioning of society.  Virtue theory is directly connected as the clause promotes the honourable traits of fairness, honesty and decency (Muller 2012b). Utilitarianism also influences this clause, as promotes actions that add to human happiness, while disapproving of actions that diminish it (Bentham 2000, p.14).

Finally, clause 11 concerns respect and privacy. While Utilitarian thinking does not take great account of rights and dignity, the other two theories do. Violation of privacy and personal rights is grossly against the ethics of virtue, while the Social Contract theory promotes the idea of civil rights and liberties, two of which are protected by this clause.

These three theories and the MEAA code also apply to real life situations, laying the groundwork for sound ethical decision making in regards to truth telling, respect, equality and fairness. But while little significance is laid on stories based on good ethical decisions, when a journalist contravenes an ethical standard, the consequences of that highlights the importance of ethical decisions in journalism.

Truth telling with supporting evidence is one of the most important aspects of journalistic writing, as it separates it from other forms of writing. As we’ve seen in the MEAA clauses, Social contract theory supports it, as honesty is paramount to a functioning society. Virtue theory describes honesty as a worth character trait, while Utilitarianism supports honesty as a way to bring happiness to the most number of people. Truth telling therefore should be a requirement for journalists, and not a decision for debate. When journalists are found to be dishonest it affects not only themselves, but also their organisation and the subject of their story. One such example of this is where Andrew Bolt, and The Herald and Weekly Times, were taken to court for stories that were found to contain errors of fact and distortions of truth (Eatock v Bolt, 2011).

By contrast, respecting human dignity can be more difficult for journalists, especially when it may clash with the breaking of a major news story. Although all three philosophies support respect and wish people ‘to do as one would be done by’ (Mill 1879, p.32), that ethical standpoint is sometimes disregarded. Following the Black Saturday bushfires, journalists looking for a scoop invaded the victims’ dignity and right to privacy. The criticism that followed from these actions, suggested that if those journalists had taken the time to make a better ethical judgment, those abuses might not have occurred.

Treating all interests equally can also be hard for journalists, despite what the code clearly states. Utilitarian thinking would require journalists to place equal importance on the interests of all people, while Social Contract theory requires the limiting of power to no more or less than anyone else’s. Therefore, a good ethical decision would involve journalists giving equal weight to their interests as well of the interests of the stakeholders in their stories, something that often did not happen during the Black Saturday bush fires.

What should not be so difficult for journalists is the use of fair, responsible means to gain information, especially in light of the News of the World hacking scandal.  Acting in a fair and honest manner means you are contributing the effective functioning of society, as Social Contract would have you do. It also has personal benefits, as they are good characteristics to have, as Virtue theory states.  A good ethical decision about obtaining material should be a no-brainer given the legal implications of using the wrong means to get information.

The MEAA code of ethics is an essential tool for journalists today given its thorough grounding in three key moral philosophies, which help us to understand the reason behind the code. It also helps journalists present the best possible story based on good ethical decisions.

Bibliography

Rachels, J & Rachels, S 2010, The Elements of Moral Philosophy, Sixth Edition, McGraw-Hill, New York.

Mill, JS 1879, Utilitarianism, The Floating Press, EBL Ebook Library, viewed 4 April 2012.

Muller, D 2011, Access to the disaster scene. Treatment of survivors and victims. The maelstrom of pressure, Cussionia Press, Swinburne Library online resource, viewed 5 April 2012.

Muller, D 2012a, ‘Lecture 2’, HAJM244 Social contract theory and Kantian ethics, Learning materials on Blackboard, Swinburne University of Technology, 21 March, viewed 3 April 2012.

Muller, D 2012b, ‘Lecture 3’, HAJM244 Utilitarian theory and Virtue theory, Learning materials on Blackboard, Swinburne University of Technology, 21 March, viewed 3 April 2012.

Hobbes, T & Gaskin, JCA 1996, Leviathan, Oxford Paperbacks, EBL Ebook Library, viewed 3 April 2012.

Bentham, J 2000, An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation, Batoche Books, Kitchener, Swinburne University Ebrary, viewed 2 April 2012.

Eatock v Bolt [2011] FCA 1103 (28 September 2011). 2012. Eatock v Bolt [2011] FCA 1103 (28 September 2011). [ONLINE] Available at: http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/FCA/2011/1103.html, viewed 05 April 2012.